SHYLOCK’S UNCERTAINTY
A reassessment
by
Joel Friedman
Commentators and interpreters of Shylock have, for the most part, given the impression of a confident, self-sufficient predator. In so doing much of Shakespeare’s subtlety in building the character has been overlooked. Shylock is by no means the stalwart figure that has been generally accepted. The clue to his true disposition lies in the strange choice of his story of Jacob and Laban.
Shylock’s narrative of Jacob outwitting Laban as to the acquisition of the parti-coloured lambs (Genesis xxx 31-43) is puzzling in that it does not adequately respond to Antonio’s denial of taking interest:
11. 56-57 Ant. Shylock, albeit I neither lend nor borrow
By taking nor giving of excess,
Curiously, in the next moment Shylock asks:
11. 64-65 Shy. Me thoughts you said, you neither lend nor borrow
Upon advantage.
And Antonio repeats:
11. 65 Ant. I do never use it.1
It is at this point that Shylock tells the story of Jacob and Laban:
11. 66-83 Shy. When Jacob grazed his uncle Laban’s sheep,-
This Jacob from out holy Abram was
(As his wise mother wrought in his behalf)
The third possessor: ay, he was the third.
Ant. And what of him? did he take interest?
Shy. No, not take interest, not as you would say
Directly int’rest, -mark what Jacob did, -
When Laban and himself were compromis’d
That all the eanling that were streak’d and pied
Should fall as Jacob’s hire, the ewes being rank
In end of autumn turned to the rams,
And when the work of generation was
Between these wooly breeders in the act,
The skillful shepherd pill’d me certain wands.
And in the doing of the deed of kind
He stuck them up before the fulsome ewes,
Who then conceiving, did in eaning time
Fall parti-colour’d lambs, and those were Jacob’s.
That the response to Antonio is off the mark, and that the story itself misses the point has struck several commentators:
The argument has been variously interpreted; (1) it is “Shylock’s bid for mutual undrerstanding” and undermines the differentiation between “natural” and “unnatural” kinds of money-making by showing that profit is always “controlled by the exercise of human skill and ingenuity” (H. B. Charlton, Shakesperian Comedy (1938), pp 141-2;… (2) it is a “sophistical and specious defense of what to an Elizabethan was manifestly wrong” (H. R. Walley, Essays in Dramatic Lit., ed. H. Craig (1935), p 237); (3) it “indicates Shylock’s preoccupation with the problem of…how he may match the cunning of his ancestor…and collect interest without taking interest” (L. W. Wilkins, M. L. N., lxii (1947), 28-30); and (4) it shows that Shylock expects a miracle-“…as God gave the flesh of cattle to Jacob…so will He give Antonio’s flesh to Shylock”…(S. Q., 1 (1950), 256-7.2
The wide variety of these interpretations merely begs the question, i. e., Why does Shylock reply to Antonio’s never taking interest with the telling of the story?
Now Shylock is anything but dull-witted. He has received Antonio’s answer twice, yet we know he is perfectly aware of the merchant’s position regarding interest. He has told us so in his first soliloquy upon encountering Antonio:
11. 39040 Shy. He lends out money gratis, and brings down
The rate of usance here with us in Venice.
Why, then, his insistence on knowing what he already knows and to such an extent that:
11. 41-47 Shy. If I can catch him once upon the hip,
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.
He hates our sacred nation and he rails
(Even there where merchants most do congregate)
On me, my bargains, and my well-won thrift,
Which he calls interest: cursed be my tribe
If I forgive him!
Now, why does he tell us Antonio does not take interest, hears Antonio tell him he does not take interest, upon that, immediately asks Antonio if he takes interest, again receives Antonio’s negative response, and then proceeds to tell Antonio the story of Jacob and Laban?
Shylock no sooner begins when Antonio interrupts to ask if Jacob took interest. No, says Shylock, not “Directly interest.” This further confounds the matter for Shylock himself most definitely takes interest, and in so doing puts himself in a bad light in comparison to his ancestor as well as to Antonio. What is gained then by the telling of the story? Surely not its conclusion which Shylock promptly offers:
11. 84-5 Shy. This was a way to thrive, and he was blest:
And thrift is blessing if men steal it not.
In spite of the questionable “eugenics” of Jacob in acquiring possession of the parti-coloured lambs, Shylock justifies Jacob’s behavior because he did not steal and he was blest. But look carefully at, “And thrift is blessing if men steal it not.” Shakespeare is insidiously clever in creating the line’s ambiguity. The reading that first comes to mind is: thrift is a blessing if men do not steal to gain thrift; but alternatively it reads: thrift is a blessing if men do not steal the blessing.
Every member of Shakespeare’s audience was acquainted with this story, and every member of the audience was acquainted, as well, with the circumstances under which Jacob obtained the blessing. Shakespeare is careful to introduce this idea early in Shylock’s narrative:
11. 67-9 Shy. This Jacob from our holy Abram was
(As his wise mother wrought in his behalf)
The third possessor; ay, he was the third.
The nature of the blessing is powerful in the extreme for Abraham, the initial leader of his people, the first possessor, by conferring the blessing onto his son, Isaac, by virtue of its mythic omnipotence, relegated the leadership of the Jews into Isaac’s hands, the second possessor. Now, in his declining years Isaac wished to pass the blessing on to his son Esau, but Rebecca, mother of Esau and Jacob, wished her favorite, Jacob, to receive Isaac’s blessing: “(As his wise mother wrought in his behalf).” She placed Jacob before the blind Isaac, and because Esau was hirsute and Jacob was not, she covered him with skins so that Isaac when he placed his hands on the young man would believe he was blessing Esau. When the ruse was discovered it was too late, the blessing had been delivered, could not possibly be rescinded, and Jacob became the third possessor of his people. Shakespeare is leading his audience toward one conclusion in spite of Shylock’s effort at justification: the blessing is stolen as well as the parti-coloured lambs. And to be doubly certain that his auditors will be aware of this deception, Antonio has this response:
11. 89-90 Ant. Was this inserted to make interest good?
Or is your gold and silver ewes and rams?
Shylock’s rejoinder is patently lame:
11. 91 Shy I cannot tell, I make it breed as fast, -
How can Shylock known for his intelligence, his cunning, in the face of this critical confrontation with his sworn enemy come off so poorly?
At this point it would be enlightening to consider Shakespeare’s position toward usury.
“By laws civil and ecclesiastical, usury – that is, the exaction of interest of any
sort – was a crime. With expanding trade and manufacture the practice was widening, but was by no one approved in principle. By 37 Henry viii cap ix, the old laws against usury are indeed abolished, and a rate of ten per cent is indirectly legalized by the fixing of severe penalties for any rate higher; but the practice is condemned, and classed with corrupt bargains.” Under Edward vi the act of Henry viii is annulled but by 1570 Elizabeth has re- enacted Henry’s law, but “foreasmuch as all Usurie, being forbidden by the law of God is synne and detestable,” it ordains that interest even at ten per cent is a criminal act.3
In spite of ecclesiastical opprobrium business was conducted as usual for it could not possibly be conducted without the instrument of interest or “usury” as the church would have it. There was hardly a business man in Shakespeare’s audience who did not charge or pay interest at some time or other, and at the same time attend Sunday sermons fulminating against the practice. Both the church and the mart simply looked the other way. Shakespeare, then, was writing for an audience largely ambivalent to the practice of usury. Therefore, he took every opportunity to emphasize its employment as a crime by taking pains to establish its negative character, for example, in this short scene selects a wide variety of terms deprecating it, viz., thrift, advantage, excess, use, usage, and interest. Shylock, the villain of the piece, had to be presented at the outset as the criminal, the alien, the outsider; Antonio, the victim, strange as it may seem from a business point of view and regardless of his prosperity as a successful merchant, must remain innocent of Shylock’s crime.
Although Shylock is undoubtedly the criminal there is however, ground for mitigation. The supposition that many commentators would have that Shylock asks enormous rates of interest and gouges his debtors out of their property is not evident anywhere in the play nor is it substantiated by the facts just cited. Shylock who is ever conscious of the letter of the law would never dare charge more than the legal ceiling of ten per cent. In fact, his tenacious adherence to the law is the very cause of his downfall. In act IV, scene I, it is his insistence that the letter of the bond be followed that provides Portia with the means of saving Antonio’s life, i.e., not shed one drop of blood or weight of flesh beyond the strict stipulation of the bond.
1. 310 Shy. Is that the law?
Shylock is introduced to the play by going over the terms of the bond with Bassanio. It is evident that it is the latter, eager to secure the money who seeks out Shylock. Antonio, considering the profound hatred existing between him and the money-lender would never approach Shylock. Later, it is established that Bassanio does not seek him out and initiates the terms of the bond:
11. 59-62 Ant. …(To Bassanio) is he yet possessed
How much ye would?
Shy. Ay, ay, three thousand ducats.
Ant. And for three months.
Shy. I had forgot, - three months, - (To Bassanio) you told me so.
Bassanio has informed Antonio of the bond’s conditions before the present encounter. Shylock approves the money to be loaned, the length of time of the loan, and in the third instance, approves the fact that Antonio shall be bound to its payment:
11. 1-5 Shy. Three thousand ducats, well.
Bas. Ay, sir, for three months.
Shy. For three months, well.
Bas. For the which, as I told you, Antonio shall be bound. Shy. Antonio shall be bound, well.
This last statement is given emphasis on its placement as the third and final provision of the bond. But, more importantly, in the choice of language: “Antonio shall be bound, well.” That final “well” is like the strike of an anvil. Shylock at long last has made a concrete connection to his adversary. Up to now there have been only insults hurled at him by Antonio in the mart and on the Rialto. The question before him is how to make capital of this opportunity. Bassanio asks him for his response but he hedges. He says Antonio is a reliable business risk, “a good man,” but then proceeds to summarize the perils of taking him on: he has “squandered” his ships throughout the seas, ships are flimsy vessels, sailors unreliable, the threat of pirates, the weather unpredictable. Yet after enumerating these conditions, oddly enough, he tells Bassanio he will take the bond. He asks to speak with Antonio. Bassanio says he may see him at dinner to which he is invited. He refuses the invitation but later accepts. What is Shylock doing? He has consented to the terms of the bond, why, then doesn’t he close with Bassanio? Evidently he is biding his time – he doesn’t know what his next move should be. But then he catches sights of Antonio. To appear at ease he aimlessly asks, “What news on the Rialto? Who is he comes here?” Now, in an aside, he expresses his hatred for him:
11. 41-2 Shy. If I could catch him once upon this hip,
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.
He senses he has been given his opportunity but still doesn’t know what to do with it. To gain time he claims he cannot readily come up with the money but, no matter, his friend Tubal, will furnish him. Now Antonio is at his elbow. Again he asks how many months are desired. Of course, he knows. But here stands Antonio and he is contemplating his next move. He greets Antonio who ignores the greeting. Instead, Antonio goes straight to the business of the bond, telling him he will make an exception of giving or taking interest for the sake of his friend. Ignoring Shylock once more, he asks Bassanio if Shylock, “is yet possessed of how much ye would?” To gain a footing Shylock interrupts and answers the question. Antonio adds, “And for three months.” Still playing for time he claims he had forgotten the term was for three months.” Still playing for the time he claims he had forgotten the term was for three months. He attempts to calculate the rate, “and let me see, - “ of course he knows the rate perfectly well. He brings up the question of Antonio never taking interest which Antonio has just expressed. An unwise question since he is well aware of the answer and reveals what a tentative state he is in. Antonio repeats that he never uses it. Still not quite knowing how to proceed and not in any way responding to Antonio’s reply concerning his never using interest, he plunges into the story of Laban and Jacob. The story fails to make its point with Antonio and results in his bitter barb:
11. 90-1 Ant. Is your gold and silver ewes and rams?
Shy. I cannot tell, I make it breed as fast,-
A lame rejoinder. Sensing this, and at a standstill, he resorts to business, “But not me, signior.” He is about to calculate the rate of the bond for the second time when Antonio, ignoring him once more, addresses Bassanio with his most insulting remark, “The devil can cite Scripture for his purpose,-“ Shylock disguises his humiliation by repeating the conditions of the bond, and, for the third time, needlessly attempts to calculate the rate. Antonio turns to him:
11. 100 Ant. Well, Shylock, shall we be beholden to you?
After the last insult and the arrogance of this question Shylock can contain himself no longer, and lashes out with all the vehemence stored up for so long, culminating in:
11. 123-25 Shy. You called me dog: and for these courtesies
I’ll lend you thus much moneys?
Antonio responds venomously:
11. 125-6 Ant. I am as like to call thee so again
But then:
11. 127-32 Ant. If thou wilt lend this money, lend it not
As to thy friends,……………………………….
…………………………………………………………
But lend it rather to thine enemy,
Who if he break, thou may’st with better face
Exact the penalty.*
In the instant Antonio has furnished Shylock with his opportunity! Out of his own mouth Antonio has delivered to Shylock the instrument of his own possible destruction. Shylock has “caught him on the hip” at last. Now he sees his way clearly. Three times he had tread water by pretending to estimate the bond’s rate – but no more. He must make the terms of the bond as attractive as possible. He will take “not a doit of usance” for his money. The ducats will be obtained on the instant. He urges Antonio to hurry with him to a notary and seal the bond. He will “purse the ducats straight.” No need for the Tubal ploy now. And the pound of flesh? Well, a passing jest, a jolly idiosyncrasy, nothing of the slightest concern. Anything to conceal the device dealing the death blow. All is done in friendship, in kindness. But only let us hurry to seal this merry bond.
The action rushes forward now, for there must be no time for the audience to wonder at Antonio’s precipitate acceptance of this ridiculous proposition. They have Shylock’s “this is kind I offer,” Bassanio’s “This were kindness,” again Shylock’s “This kindness will I show,” and Antonio’s “There is much kindness in the Jew,” ringing in their ears. Anyway, the stipulation of the pound of flesh is so outrageous an idea that in spite of Bassanio’s objections Antonio accepts it without question. The scene is rich in subtlety. Shylock’s inability to directly pursue his incessant intention to harm Antonio, reveals his misjudgement in the selection of Laban and Jacob, and through the cunning justification of Jacob’s shady practice exposes his own duplicity. Only with the fortuitous admonition of Antonio to lend money, “rather to thine enemy” does he provide Shylock with a direct path to his revenge.
* (My italics)
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